Regulation of STING activity in DNA sensing by ISG15 modification.

Sensing of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) DNA is mediated by the cyclic GMP-AMP synthase-stimulator of interferon genes (cGAS-STING) signaling axis. Signal transduction and regulation of this cascade is achieved by post-translational modifications. Here we show that cGAS-STING-dependent HIV-1 sensing requires interferon-stimulated gene 15 (ISG15). ISG15 deficiency inhibits STING-dependent sensing of HIV-1 and STING agonist-induced antiviral response. Upon external stimuli, STING undergoes ISGylation at residues K224, K236, K289, K347, K338, and K370. Inhibition of STING ISGylation at K289 suppresses STING-mediated type Ⅰ interferon induction by inhibiting its oligomerization. Of note, removal of STING ISGylation alleviates gain-of-function phenotype in STING-associated vasculopathy with onset in infancy (SAVI). Molecular modeling suggests that ISGylation of K289 is an important regulator of oligomerization. Taken together, our data demonstrate that ISGylation at K289 is crucial for STING activation and represents an important regulatory step in DNA sensing of viruses and autoimmune responses.

Gene editing of SAMHD1 in macrophage-like cells reveals complex relationships between SAMHD1 phospho-regulation, HIV-1 restriction, and cellular dNTP levels.

IMPORTANCE: We introduce BLaER1 cells as an alternative myeloid cell model in combination with CRISPR/Cas9-mediated gene editing to study the influence of sterile α motif and HD domain-containing protein 1 (SAMHD1) T592 phosphorylation on anti-viral restriction and the control of cellular dNTP levels in an endogenous, physiologically relevant context. A proper understanding of the mechanism of the anti-viral function of SAMHD1 will provide attractive strategies aiming at selectively manipulating SAMHD1 without affecting other cellular functions. Even more, our toolkit may inspire further genetic analysis and investigation of restriction factors inhibiting retroviruses and their cellular function and regulation, leading to a deeper understanding of intrinsic anti-viral immunity.

Gene editing of SAMHD1 in macrophage-like cells reveals complex relationships between SAMHD1 phospho-regulation, HIV-1 restriction and cellular dNTP levels.

Sterile α motif (SAM) and HD domain-containing protein 1 (SAMHD1) is a dNTP triphosphate triphosphohydrolase (dNTPase) and a potent restriction factor for immunodeficiency virus 1 (HIV-1), active in myeloid and resting CD4+ T cells. The anti-viral activity of SAMHD1 is regulated by dephosphorylation of the residue T592. However, the impact of T592 phosphorylation on dNTPase activity is still under debate. Whether additional cellular functions of SAMHD1 impact anti-viral restriction is not completely understood. We report BLaER1 cells as a novel human macrophage HIV-1 infection model combined with CRISPR/Cas9 knock-in (KI) introducing specific mutations into the SAMHD1 locus to study mutations in a physiological context. Transdifferentiated BLaER1 cells harbor active dephosphorylated SAMHD1 that blocks HIV-1 reporter virus infection. As expected, homozygous T592E mutation, but not T592A, relieved a block to HIV-1 reverse transcription. Co-delivery of VLP-Vpx to SAMHD1 T592E KI mutant cells did not further enhance HIV-1 infection indicating the absence of an additional SAMHD1-mediated antiviral activity independent of T592 de-phosphorylation. T592E KI cells retained dNTP levels similar to WT cells indicating uncoupling of anti-viral and dNTPase activity of SAMHD1. The integrity of the catalytic site in SAMHD1 was critical for anti-viral activity, yet poor correlation of HIV-1 restriction and global cellular dNTP levels was observed in cells harboring catalytic core mutations. Together, we emphasize the complexity of the relationship between HIV-1 restriction, SAMHD1 enzymatic function and T592 phospho-regulation and provide novel tools for investigation in an endogenous and physiological context.

Recognition of HIV-1 capsid by PQBP1 licenses an innate immune sensing of nascent HIV-1 DNA.

We have previously described polyglutamine-binding protein 1 (PQBP1) as an adapter required for the cyclic GMP-AMP synthase (cGAS)-mediated innate response to the human immunodeficiency virus 1 (HIV-1) and other lentiviruses. Cytoplasmic HIV-1 DNA is a transient and low-abundance pathogen-associated molecular pattern (PAMP), and the mechanism for its detection and verification is not fully understood. Here, we show a two-factor authentication strategy by the innate surveillance machinery to selectively respond to the low concentration of HIV-1 DNA, while distinguishing these species from extranuclear DNA molecules. We find that, upon HIV-1 infection, PQBP1 decorates the intact viral capsid, and this serves as a primary verification step for the viral nucleic acid cargo. As reverse transcription and capsid disassembly initiate, cGAS is recruited to the capsid in a PQBP1-dependent manner. This positions cGAS at the site of PAMP generation and sanctions its response to a low-abundance DNA PAMP.

SAMHD1 in cancer: curse or cure?

Human sterile α motif and HD domain-containing protein 1 (SAMHD1), originally described as the major cellular deoxyribonucleoside triphosphate triphosphohydrolase (dNTPase) balancing the intracellular deoxynucleotide (dNTP) pool, has come recently into focus of cancer research. As outlined in this review, SAMHD1 has been reported to be mutated in a variety of cancer types and the expression of SAMHD1 is dysregulated in many cancers. Therefore, SAMHD1 is regarded as a tumor suppressor in certain tumors. Moreover, it has been proposed that SAMHD1 might fulfill the requirements of a driver gene in tumor development or might promote a so-called mutator phenotype. Besides its role as a dNTPase, several novel cellular functions of SAMHD1 have come to light only recently, including a role as negative regulator of innate immune responses and as facilitator of DNA end resection during DNA replication and repair. Therefore, SAMHD1 can be placed at the crossroads of various cellular processes. The present review summarizes the negative role of SAMHD1 in chemotherapy sensitivity, highlights reported SAMHD1 mutations found in various cancer types, and aims to discuss functional consequences as well as underlying mechanisms of SAMHD1 dysregulation potentially involved in cancer development.

Targeting Immune Modulators in Glioma While Avoiding Autoimmune Conditions.

Communication signals and signaling pathways are often studied in different physiological systems. However, it has become abundantly clear that the immune system is not self-regulated, but functions in close association with the nervous system. The neural-immune interface is complex; its balance determines cancer progression, as well as autoimmune disorders. Immunotherapy remains a promising approach in the context of glioblastoma multiforme (GBM). The primary obstacle to finding effective therapies is the potent immunosuppression induced by GBM. Anti-inflammatory cytokines, induction of regulatory T cells, and the expression of immune checkpoint molecules are the key mediators for immunosuppression in the tumor microenvironment. Immune checkpoint molecules are ligand-receptor pairs that exert inhibitory or stimulatory effects on immune responses. In the past decade, they have been extensively studied in preclinical and clinical trials in diseases such as cancer or autoimmune diseases in which the immune system has failed to maintain homeostasis. In this review, we will discuss promising immune-modulatory targets that are in the focus of current clinical research in glioblastoma, but are also in the precarious position of potentially becoming starting points for the development of autoimmune diseases like multiple sclerosis.

Special Issue: "Innate Immune Sensing of Viruses and Viral Evasion".

In this Special Issue, a wide variety of original and review articles provide a timely overview of how viruses are recognized by and evade from cellular innate immunity, which represents the first line of defense against viruses [...].

Atxn2-CAG100-KnockIn mouse spinal cord shows progressive TDP43 pathology associated with cholesterol biosynthesis suppression.

Large polyglutamine expansions in Ataxin-2 (ATXN2) cause multi-system nervous atrophy in Spinocerebellar Ataxia type 2 (SCA2). Intermediate size expansions carry a risk for selective motor neuron degeneration, known as Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS). Conversely, the depletion of ATXN2 prevents disease progression in ALS. Although ATXN2 interacts directly with RNA, and in ALS pathogenesis there is a crucial role of RNA toxicity, the affected functional pathways remain ill defined. Here, we examined an authentic SCA2 mouse model with Atxn2-CAG100-KnockIn for a first definition of molecular mechanisms in spinal cord pathology. Neurophysiology of lower limbs detected sensory neuropathy rather than motor denervation. Triple immunofluorescence demonstrated cytosolic ATXN2 aggregates sequestrating TDP43 and TIA1 from the nucleus. In immunoblots, this was accompanied by elevated CASP3, RIPK1 and PQBP1 abundance. RT-qPCR showed increase of Grn, Tlr7 and Rnaset2 mRNA versus Eif5a2, Dcp2, Uhmk1 and Kif5a decrease. These SCA2 findings overlap well with known ALS features. Similar to other ataxias and dystonias, decreased mRNA levels for Unc80, Tacr1, Gnal, Ano3, Kcna2, Elovl5 and Cdr1 contrasted with Gpnmb increase. Preterminal stage tissue showed strongly activated microglia containing ATXN2 aggregates, with parallel astrogliosis. Global transcriptome profiles from stages of incipient motor deficit versus preterminal age identified molecules with progressive downregulation, where a cluster of cholesterol biosynthesis enzymes including Dhcr24, Msmo1, Idi1 and Hmgcs1 was prominent. Gas chromatography demonstrated a massive loss of crucial cholesterol precursor metabolites. Overall, the ATXN2 protein aggregation process affects diverse subcellular compartments, in particular stress granules, endoplasmic reticulum and receptor tyrosine kinase signaling. These findings identify new targets and potential biomarkers for neuroprotective therapies.

Correction: Y-box-binding protein 1 supports the early and late steps of HIV replication.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0200080.].

Designed Ankyrin Repeat Protein (DARPin) to target chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-redirected T cells towards CD4+ T cells to reduce the latent HIV+ cell reservoir.

Chimeric Antigen Receptor (CAR)-redirected T cells show great efficacy in the patient-specific therapy of hematologic malignancies. Here, we demonstrate that a DARPin with specificity for CD4 specifically redirects and triggers the activation of CAR engineered T cells resulting in the depletion of CD4+ target cells aiming for elimination of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) reservoir.

Hepatitis B Virus DNA is a Substrate for the cGAS/STING Pathway but is not Sensed in Infected Hepatocytes.

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) chronic infection is a critical risk factor for hepatocellular carcinoma. The innate immune response to HBV infection is a matter of debate. In particular, viral escape mechanisms are poorly understood. Our study reveals that HBV RNAs are not immunostimulatory in immunocompetent myeloid cells. In contrast, HBV DNA from viral particles and DNA replication intermediates are immunostimulatory and sensed by cyclic GMP-AMP Synthase (cGAS) and Stimulator of Interferon Genes (STING). We show that primary human hepatocytes express DNA sensors to reduced levels compared to myeloid cells. Nevertheless, hepatocytes can respond to HBV relaxed-circular DNA (rcDNA), when transfected in sufficient amounts, but not to HBV infection. Finally, our data suggest that HBV infection does not actively inhibit the DNA-sensing pathway. In conclusion, in infected hepatocytes, HBV passively evades recognition by cellular sensors of nucleic acids by (i) producing non-immunostimulatory RNAs, (ii) avoiding sensing of its DNAs by cGAS/STING without active inhibition of the pathway.

Generation of three induced pluripotent cell lines (iPSCs) from an Aicardi-Goutières syndrome (AGS) patient harboring a deletion in the genomic locus of the sterile alpha motif and HD domain containing protein 1 (SAMHD1).

Aicardi-Goutières syndrome (AGS) is a hereditary early onset encephalopathy. AGS patients display variable clinical manifestations including intracranial calcification, cerebral atrophy, white matter abnormalities and characteristic leukocytosis as well as a constitutive upregulation of type I IFN production indicative of a type I interferonopathy. Seven genes (SAMHD1, TREX1, RNASEH2B, RNASEH2C, RNASEH2A, ADAR1, IFIH1) have been associated with the AGS phenotype, up to now. Here, we describe the generation of three induced pluripotent stem cell lines from a patient with a deletion of coding exons 14 and 15 of the SAMHD1 gene.

Sensor Sensibility-HIV-1 and the Innate Immune Response.

Innate immunity represents the human immune system's first line of defense against a pathogenic intruder and is initiated by the recognition of conserved molecular structures known as pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) by specialized cellular sensors, called pattern recognition receptors (PRRs). Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) is a unique human RNA virus that causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) in infected individuals. During the replication cycle, HIV-1 undergoes reverse transcription of its RNA genome and integrates the resulting DNA into the human genome. Subsequently, transcription of the integrated provirus results in production of new virions and spreading infection of the virus. Throughout the viral replication cycle, numerous nucleic acid derived PAMPs can be recognized by a diverse set of innate immune sensors in infected cells. However, HIV-1 has evolved efficient strategies to evade or counteract this immune surveillance and the downstream responses. Understanding the molecular underpinnings of the concerted actions of the innate immune system, as well as the corresponding viral evasion mechanisms during infection, is critical to understanding HIV-1 transmission and pathogenesis, and may provide important guidance for the design of appropriate adjuvant and vaccine strategies. Here, we summarize current knowledge of the molecular basis for sensing HIV-1 in human cells, including CD4+ T cells, dendritic cells, and macrophages. Furthermore, we discuss the underlying mechanisms by which innate sensing is regulated, and describe the strategies developed by HIV-1 to evade sensing and immune responses.

Induced pluripotent stem cell line (PEIi003-A) derived from an apparently healthy male individual.

Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) are a useful tool to investigate pathomechanistic and cellular processes due to their differentiation potential into different somatic cell types in vitro. Here, we have generated iPSCs from an apparently healthy male individual using an integration-free reprogramming method. The resulting iPSCs are pluripotent and display a normal karyotype. Furthermore, we demonstrate that this iPSC line can be differentiated into all three germ layers.

Cathelicidin Contributes to the Restriction of Leishmania in Human Host Macrophages.

In cutaneous Leishmaniasis the parasitic control in human host macrophages is still poorly understood. We found an increased expression of the human cathelicidin CAMP in skin lesions of Ethiopian patients with cutaneous leishmaniasis. Vitamin D driven, Cathelicidin-type antimicrobial peptides (CAMP) play an important role in the elimination of invading microorganisms. Recombinant cathelicidin was able to induce cell-death characteristics in Leishmania in a dose dependent manner. Using human primary macrophages, we demonstrated pro-inflammatory macrophages (hMDM1) to express a higher level of human cathelicidin, both on gene and protein level, compared to anti-inflammatory macrophages (hMDM2). Activating the CAMP pathway using Vitamin D in hMDM1 resulted in a cathelicidin-mediated-Leishmania restriction. Finally, a reduction of cathelicidin in hMDM1, using a RNA interference (RNAi) approach, increased Leishmania parasite survival. In all, these data show the human cathelicidin to contribute to the innate immune response against Leishmaniasis in a human primary cell model.

Insights into Innate Sensing of Prototype Foamy Viruses in Myeloid Cells.

Foamy viruses (FVs) belong to the Spumaretrovirinae subfamily of retroviruses and are characterized by unique features in their replication strategy. This includes a reverse transcription (RTr) step of the packaged RNA genome late in replication, resulting in the release of particles with a fraction of them already containing an infectious viral DNA (vDNA) genome. Little is known about the immune responses against FVs in their hosts, which control infection and may be responsible for their apparent apathogenic nature. We studied the interaction of FVs with the innate immune system in myeloid cells, and characterized the viral pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) and the cellular pattern recognition receptors and sensing pathways involved. Upon cytoplasmic access, full-length but not minimal vector genome containing FVs with active reverse transcriptase, induced an efficient innate immune response in various myeloid cells. It was dependent on cellular cGAS and STING and largely unaffected by RTr inhibition during viral entry. This suggests that RTr products, which are generated during FV morphogenesis in infected cells, and are therefore already present in FV particles taken up by immune cells, are the main PAMPs of FVs with full-length genomes sensed in a cGAS and STING-dependent manner by the innate immune system in host cells of the myeloid lineage.

Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) derived from a renpenning syndrome patient with c.459_462delAGAG mutation in PQBP1 (PEIi001-A).

The Renpenning syndrome spectrum is a rare X-linked mental retardation syndrome characterized by intellectual disability, microcephaly, low stature, lean body and hypogonadism. Mutations in the polyglutamine tract binding protein 1 (PQBP1) locus are causative for disease. Here, we describe the generation of an iPSC line from a patient mutated in the polar amino acid-rich domain of PQBP1 resulting in a C-terminal truncated protein (c.459_462 delAGAG, type p.R153fs193X).

ISG15 Deficiency Enhances HIV-1 Infection by Accumulating Misfolded p53.

Macrophages and dendritic cells dominate early immune responses to lentiviruses. HIV-1 sensing by pathogen recognition receptors induces signaling cascades that culminate in type I alpha/beta interferon (IFN-α/ß) induction. IFN-α/ß signals back via the IFN-α/ß receptors, inducing a plethora of IFN-stimulated gene (ISGs), including ISG15, p53, and p21Cip1 p21 inhibits HIV-1 replication by inactivating the deoxynucleoside triphosphate (dNTP) biosynthesis pathway and activating the restriction factor SAMHD1. p21 is induced by functional p53. ISG15-specific isopeptidase USP18 negatively regulates IFN signaling. We showed previously that USP18 contributes to HIV-1 replication by abrogating p21 antiviral function. Here, we demonstrate a mechanism by which USP18 mediates p21 downregulation in myeloid cells. USP18, by its protease activity, accumulates misfolded p53, which requires ISG15 for its degradation. Depletion of ISG15 causes accumulation of misfolded dominant negative p53, which enhances HIV-1 replication. This work clarifies the function and consequences of p53 modification by ISG15 and implicates USP18 in HIV-1 infection and potentially in carcinogenesis.IMPORTANCE HIV-1 has evolved many strategies to circumvent the host's antiviral innate immune responses and establishes disseminated infection; the molecular mechanisms of these strategies are not entirely clear. We showed previously that USP18 contributes to HIV-1 replication by abrogating p21 antiviral function. Here, we demonstrate a mechanism by which USP18 mediates p21 downregulation in myeloid cells. USP18, by its protease activity, accumulates misfolded p53, which requires ISG15 for clearance. Depletion of ISG15 causes accumulation of misfolded dominant negative p53, which supports HIV-1 replication. This work clarifies the function and consequences of p53 modification by ISG15 and implicates USP18 in HIV-1 infection and potentially in carcinogenesis.

Intertwined: SAMHD1 cellular functions, restriction, and viral evasion strategies.

SAMHD1 was initially described for its ability to efficiently restrict HIV-1 replication in myeloid cells and resting CD4+ T cells. However, a growing body of evidence suggests that SAMHD1-mediated restriction is by far not limited to lentiviruses, but seems to be a general concept that applies to most retroviruses and at least a number of DNA viruses. SAMHD1 anti-viral activity was long believed to be solely due to its ability to deplete cellular dNTPs by enzymatic degradation. However, since its discovery, several new functions have been attributed to SAMHD1. It has been demonstrated to bind nucleic acids, to modulate innate immunity, as well as to participate in the DNA damage response and resolution of stalled replication forks. Consequently, it is likely that SAMHD1-mediated anti-viral activity is not or not exclusively mediated through its dNTPase activity. Therefore, in this review, we summarize current knowledge on SAMHD1 cellular functions and systematically discuss how these functions could contribute to the restriction of a broad range of viruses besides retroviruses: herpesviruses, poxviruses and hepatitis B virus. Furthermore, we aim to highlight different ways how viruses counteract SAMHD1-mediated restriction to bypass the SAMHD1-mediated block to viral infection.